Nepal, officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a stunning landlocked country in South Asia, nestled between China’s Tibet Autonomous Region to the north and India to the south, east, and west. Though small in size, Nepal’s landscape is breathtakingly diverse — from the fertile Terai plains to the snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas, including Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain. Its capital, Kathmandu, serves as the nation’s cultural and political heart.
A multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, and multi-religious nation, Nepal celebrates unity in diversity. The Nepali language is officially recognised, while the country’s cultural heritage reflects both Indo-Aryan and Tibetan influences.
The name “Nepal” dates back to the Vedic era, the time when Hinduism began to flourish in the region. Lumbini, located in southern Nepal, is globally revered as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. The ancient Kathmandu Valley once thrived as a major trade hub along the Silk Road, home to the artistic and prosperous Newar civilisation, renowned for its unique art, architecture, and festivals.
In the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom united the region to form modern Nepal under the Shah dynasty, later governed by the Rana rulers in alliance with the British Empire. Remarkably, Nepal was never colonised, serving as a buffer state between China and British India. After periods of political struggle, parliamentary democracy was restored, and in 2008, Nepal became a secular federal republic, ending the world’s last Hindu monarchy. The Constitution of Nepal (2015) established the nation as a federal parliamentary republic divided into seven provinces.
In recent years, Nepal has faced social and political challenges, including the 2025 protests over economic inequality and social media restrictions, which led to mass demonstrations and government resignations.
Nepal maintains a foreign policy based on peace, neutrality, and mutual respect. It joined the United Nations in 1955 and signed friendship treaties with India (1950) and China (1960). Nepal is a founding member of SAARC and hosts its permanent secretariat in Kathmandu. As part of the Non-Aligned Movement and BIMSTEC, Nepal continues to promote regional cooperation, sustainable development, and global peace.
History of Nepal — From Ancient Civilisations to Modern Unification
Early Civilisation and Prehistoric Nepal
Archaeological discoveries show that human life in Nepal dates back nearly 30,000 years, around the same time as the first known settlements across South Asia. By 55,000 years ago, modern humans migrated to the Indian subcontinent from Africa, eventually reaching the Himalayan region.
After 6500 BC, early farming communities appeared in areas like Mehrgarh (modern Balochistan), marking the rise of the Indus Valley Civilisation — South Asia’s first urban culture. Prehistoric artefacts from Dang district’s Siwalik Hills reveal Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic habitation. These early settlers likely included Dravidian peoples, who were later joined by Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan groups, shaping Nepal’s diverse ethnic roots.
By 4000 BC, Tibeto-Burmese tribes had entered the Himalayas from Tibet and northeast India. Ancient texts mention the Gopal and Kirata dynasties, the earliest rulers of the central Himalayan region known as Nepal. The Kiratas are even referenced in the Mahabharata as allies in the Battle of Kurukshetra.
Birth of Buddhism and Early Kingdoms
Around 600 BC, small kingdoms emerged in southern Nepal. From one such clan, the Shakyas, came Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who renounced royal life to attain enlightenment as Gautama Buddha, born in Lumbini. His teachings made Nepal a global centre for spirituality and learning, transmitting Buddhism from Nepal to Tibet and East Asia.
By 250 BC, Nepal’s southern plains fell under the Mauryan Empire, when Emperor Ashoka visited Lumbini and erected a stone pillar marking Buddha’s birthplace — the first dated historical record of Nepal. He also built Buddhist monuments in the Kathmandu Valley, which later flourished under the Gupta Empire around the 4th century AD.
Licchavi and Thakuri Dynasties
The Licchavi dynasty rose to power around 400 AD, pushing the Kiratas eastward. This period brought architectural development, stone inscriptions, and trade expansion. In 641 AD, Songtsen Gampo of Tibet briefly influenced the Licchavi court by reinstating King Narendradeva. After the 8th century, the Thakuri rulers succeeded the Licchavis, ruling until the 11th century — a period often called Nepal’s Dark Age due to limited historical records.
Medieval Period — Rise of the Khas and Malla Kingdoms
In the 11th century, the Khas Empire emerged in western Nepal, extending into Tibet and Uttarakhand. The Khas language evolved into modern Nepali, which spread widely across the Himalayas. Around the same time, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila ruled from Simraungadh, even controlling Kathmandu for a brief period.
In the Kathmandu Valley, the Malla dynasty gained prominence by the 14th century, ushering in a golden era of art, architecture, and urban development. Jayasthiti Malla introduced administrative and social reforms, including a codified caste system based on Hindu law. Rivalry among Malla rulers in Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur, and Banepa fostered architectural marvels like the Durbar Squares, but internal division eventually weakened them.
Despite regional instability, Nepal remained largely untouched by the Muslim invasions that swept India. The Mughal era saw many Hindu Rajputs migrate to Nepal, strengthening the country’s Hindu traditions and helping preserve its cultural identity.
Unification of Nepal (18th Century Onwards)
In the mid-18th century, King Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha began unifying fragmented kingdoms into what is now modern Nepal. His successful conquest of the Kathmandu Valley (1769) established a powerful kingdom stretching from Sikkim in the east to Garhwal in the west.
Conflicts with Tibet and the Qing Empire of China limited northern expansion, while rivalry with the British East India Company led to the Anglo-Nepal War (1814–1816). The British underestimated Nepal’s Gurkha warriors, but the war ended with the Sugauli Treaty, under which Nepal ceded some territories yet maintained independence — making it one of the few South Asian nations never colonised.
Rana Era and British Alliance (1846–1951)
Political chaos and royal conspiracies led to the Kot Massacre (1846), bringing Jung Bahadur Rana to power. He established the Rana dynasty, turning the monarchy into a ceremonial role and making the prime minister’s position hereditary. The Ranas pursued a pro-British foreign policy, aiding Britain in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and both World Wars. In return, the British granted Nepal parts of the western Terai region (Naya Muluk).
Under Rana rule, Sati (widow burning) was banned in 1919, and slavery was abolished in 1924. However, the regime became notorious for autocracy, corruption, and oppression, stifling education and economic growth for over a century.
Legacy of Nepal’s History
From ancient Dravidian settlers to the rise of Buddhist and Hindu dynasties, Nepal’s history reflects a blend of spiritual depth, resilience, and unity. The country’s strategic position between India and China, its enduring Himalayan culture, and its successful resistance to colonisation have made it a symbol of independence and cultural pride in South Asia.
Politics and Government of Nepal
Political Overview
Nepal is a federal parliamentary republic with a vibrant multi-party political system. Since the adoption of its new constitution in 2015, the country has officially been called the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. Nepal’s democracy is built on pluralism, inclusivity, and federalism — uniting people of different ethnicities, religions, and languages under one national identity.
The federal parliament currently recognises seven major national parties:
Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) – CPN (UML)
Nepali Congress (NC)
Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)
Rastriya Swatantra Party (RSP)
Rastriya Prajatantra Party (RPP)
People’s Socialist Party (PSP)
Janamat Party
Among these, Nepali Congress represents the centrist democratic socialist ideology, while CPN (UML) leans towards leftist democratic socialism.
Historically, the Nepali Congress dominated the democratic periods of the 1950s and 1990s, with CPN (UML) emerging as its main rival. After the Maoist insurgency (1996–2006) ended, the Maoist Centre entered mainstream politics, becoming a major force in the new federal setup.
Following the 2017 general election, held under the new constitution, the CPN (UML) and CPN (Maoist Centre) merged to form the Nepal Communist Party (NCP), which ruled at the federal level and in six of seven provinces.
In the 2022 general election, no single party secured a majority, leading to a coalition government under Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda). Later, in July 2024, K. P. Sharma Oli was sworn in as Prime Minister for the fourth time, heading a coalition between Nepali Congress (led by Sher Bahadur Deuba) and CPN (UML).
Historical Background of Nepal’s Political Journey
Modern Nepal’s political transformation began in the 1930s, when underground movements emerged against the autocratic Rana regime. The Nepal Praja Parishad (founded in 1936) marked the beginning of organised political activism.
Inspired by India’s independence movement, exiled Nepalis formed parties like the Nepali Congress and Communist Party of Nepal, both of which played key roles in overthrowing the Rana oligarchy in 1951.
The 1951 revolution, led by B. P. Koirala, brought democracy and made him Nepal’s first elected Prime Minister. However, his government was dismissed in 1961 by King Mahendra, who replaced the parliamentary system with the Panchayat regime — a partyless monarchy-controlled system lasting until 1990.
During this period, opposition leaders were imprisoned, exiled, or forced underground. Communist movements were suppressed but gradually united under the United Left Front, which later evolved into the CPN (UML).
The 1990 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan I) — a joint effort by the Nepali Congress and the United Left Front — ended the Panchayat system and restored multi-party democracy under constitutional monarchy.
A decade later, the Maoist insurgency (1996–2006) demanded the end of monarchy and the creation of a republic. Following the 2006 Peace Accord, the Maoists joined democratic politics, and by 2008, Nepal officially became a secular republic, abolishing the world’s last Hindu monarchy.
The transitional years between 2006 and 2015 saw growing demands for inclusion from Madhesi, Tharu, and other ethnic movements, shaping Nepal’s new federal constitution.
Structure of Government
Nepal operates under the Constitution of Nepal (2015), which defines it as a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, and multi-cultural federal democratic republic committed to national unity, sovereignty, and prosperity.
Executive Branch
Nepal’s executive power lies with the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.
The President serves as the head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government.
The President appoints as Prime Minister the leader of the parliamentary party with a majority in the House of Representatives.
The government functions under a multi-party competitive parliamentary system.
Legislature
The Federal Parliament of Nepal comprises two houses:
House of Representatives (Pratinidhi Sabha) – 275 members elected through a mixed electoral system, with a five-year term.
National Assembly (Rastriya Sabha) – 59 members chosen by provincial electoral colleges; one-third of its members are renewed every two years, serving six-year terms.
This bicameral legislature is responsible for passing laws, forming governments, and overseeing the executive.
Judiciary
Nepal’s judiciary is independent and unitary, consisting of:
The Supreme Court, the highest authority, led by the Chief Justice.
Seven High Courts, one in each province.
Seventy-seven District Courts, one in each district.
Local municipalities can convene judicial committees to resolve civil disputes and minor conflicts.
Higher courts can review and overturn lower-level verdicts, ensuring checks and balances within the system.
Modern Nepal’s Political Identity
Today, Nepal’s politics is defined by coalition governments, federal governance, and democratic pluralism. Despite challenges like party fragmentation, ethnic representation, and governance instability, Nepal continues to strengthen its democratic institutions and constitutional framework.
Its vibrant political culture — rooted in the struggles of leaders like B. P. Koirala, Pushpa Kamal Dahal, and K. P. Sharma Oli — reflects the country’s long-standing commitment to freedom, equality, and social justice.
Laws and Law Enforcement in Nepal
Constitutional supremacy: The Constitution of Nepal is the highest law—any conflicting statute is void to that extent. Nepal’s core statutes include the Civil Code and Criminal Code, with matching procedure codes. The Supreme Court interprets laws and can instruct parliament to amend or enact new ones.
Rights & penalties: Nepal has abolished the death penalty, recognises marital rape, and protects abortion rights (with tighter rules to curb sex-selective practices).
Treaties: Nepal is party to the Geneva Conventions, conventions on biological/chemical/nuclear weapons, ILO fundamental conventions, the NPT, and the Paris Agreement.
Gaps & bias: Some provisions still reflect social norms and can be discriminatory (e.g., treatment of foreign spouses; emphasis on paternal lineage). Enforcement remains uneven in practice.
Police & agencies:
Nepal Police (under the Ministry of Home Affairs) handles public order, crime control, and—via Traffic Police—road management.
The Armed Police Force (paramilitary) assists in crowd control, counter-insurgency/terror, and high-risk operations.
CID leads investigations and forensics; the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA) prosecutes corruption.
Nepal’s intentional homicide rate has been low by global standards, though recorded crime has been rising. Nepal ranked mid-table in the Global Peace Index and its passport strength remains weak.
Foreign Relations of Nepal
Balancing neighbours: Nepal follows non-alignment and neutrality, keeping balanced ties with India and China. It’s a member of SAARC, UN, WTO, BIMSTEC, ACD and maintains relations with ~167 countries.
Peacekeeping: A top UN peacekeeping contributor since 1958, Nepal has sent over 100k+ personnel to dozens of missions.
Gurkha legacy: Nepalis’ reputation for honesty, loyalty, and bravery underpins two centuries of Gurkha service in Indian and British forces, earning the Victoria Cross, Param Vir Chakra, and other honours.
India: Open border, deep people-to-people, cultural and trade ties; India is Nepal’s largest trading partner and energy supplier. Relations are close but periodically strained by territorial and economic issues.
China: Diplomatic ties since 1955; 1960 friendship treaty; relations based on Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. Nepal upholds One-China policy, restricts anti-China political activity by refugees, and has BRI cooperation and port access for third-country trade—useful during supply shocks.
Region & beyond: Nepal hosts SAARC’s secretariat (Kathmandu), recognised Bangladesh early, and seeks trade/port access via Bangladesh. It maintains friendly ties with US, UK, Japan, Denmark, Norway, EU and was the first South Asian state to recognise Israel while supporting Palestinian rights at the UN.
Military and Intelligence
The President is supreme commander; the Ministry of Defence manages the Nepali Army—a mostly ground infantry force (under 100k), with limited aircraft used for transport, patrol, and SAR.
Missions: critical-asset security, anti-poaching in parks, counter-insurgency, disaster response, and public works.
Intelligence: Directorate of Military Intelligence (army) and the National Investigation Department (civilian) handle security intelligence. Recruitment is voluntary; while open on paper, the force is historically male-dominated with strong Pahari warrior-caste representation.
Budget: Defence spending has hovered around ~1–1.5% of GDP in recent years.
Economy of Nepal
Nepal remains a low-income economy (low per-capita GDP by both nominal and PPP). WTO member since 2004.
Structure: Services (~58% of GDP) lead; agriculture (~28%) and industry (~15%) follow. Remittances (notably from India, the Gulf, and East Asia) contribute heavily—>25% of GDP in recent years.
Agriculture: cereals (paddy, maize, wheat, millet, barley), oilseeds, potatoes, pulses; livestock products like milk and buffalo meat.
Industry & trade: tourism; carpets, textiles, cement, bricks; small mills (rice, jute, sugar, oilseed). Trade liberalised post-1990; >60% of trade with India. Exports include RMG, carpets, herbs, handicrafts; imports include fuel, machinery, electronics, fertiliser, gold, and intermediates. Inflation has been moderate; reserves have fluctuated with tourism and remittance cycles.
Poverty & vulnerability: Poverty fell from ~15% (2010) to ~9% (2018) at the $1.90 line, but many hover just above it. Agriculture is monsoon-dependent (limited irrigation). Growth relies on private consumption, tourism, and agri.
Headwinds: Rugged, landlocked geography, limited infrastructure, governance constraints, and the legacy of conflict slow gains. Debt bondage persists in pockets of the western hills and Terai. The pandemic dented tourism and remittances, prompting temporary import curbs to protect FX reserves.
Currency & partners: The Nepali rupee is long-pegged to the Indian rupee (1.6). Key export markets: EU, US, Germany; main imports: India, UAE, China, Saudi Arabia, Singapore.
Tourism in Nepal
Tourism is a pillar industry—~8% of GDP and 1M+ jobs pre-pandemic. Arrivals topped 1 million (2018) excluding Indian land entries.
Flagship draws: Mount Everest (Sagarmatha National Park), the Annapurna Circuit, Kathmandu Valley’s UNESCO sites, Chitwan National Park, and Lumbini (Buddha’s birthplace).
Trends & constraints: Opened widely in 1951, boomed in the 1960s–70s; rebounded after the civil war but faces infrastructure bottlenecks, limited premium capacity, and issues at the national carrier. Community homestays and eco-tourism are bright spots; Everest revenues skew toward the Nepal side due to access
