Ukraine is located in Eastern Europe and is the continent’s second-largest country, after Russia. It borders Russia to the east and northeast, Belarus to the north, Poland and Slovakia to the west, and Hungary, Romania, and Moldova to the southwest. To the south and southeast, it is bordered by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The country’s capital and biggest metropolis is Kyiv, with other major cities including Kharkiv, Dnipro, and Odesa. Ukrainian is recognized as the official state language.

Capital and largest city	Kyiv
Official language and national language	Ukrainian
Ethnic group	78% Ukrainians 17% Russians 4.9% other
Religion (2018)	87.3% Christianity 11.0% no religion 0.8% other 0.9% unanswered
Demonym(s)	Ukrainian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
Demonym(s)	Ukrainian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President	Volodymyr Zelenskyy
• Prime Minister	Denys Shmyhal
• Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada	Ruslan Stefanchuk
Legislature	Verkhovna Rada
• Kievan Rus	882
• Galicia–Volhynia	1199
• Cossack Hetmanate	18 August 1649
• People's republic	20 November 1917
• Soviet republic	10 March 1919
• UN membership	24 October 1945
• Independence declared	24 August 1991
• Current constitution	28 June 1996
• Total	603,628
• Water (%)	3.8
• 2024 estimate	33,443,000
• Density	60.9/km2 (157.7/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2025 estimate
• Total	$684.180 billion
• Per capita	$20,756
GDP (nominal)	2025 estimate
• Total	$189.827 billion
• Per capita	$5,759
Gini (2020)	25.6
HDI (2022)	0.734
Currency	Hryvnia
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Calling code	+380

Human settlement in the territory of present-day Ukraine can be traced back to around 32,000 BC. During the medieval era, the region became a hub for the expansion of the early Slavs, eventually developing into the core of East Slavic civilisation with the emergence of Kievan Rus’ in the 9th century. By the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus’ had grown into one of Europe’s strongest states, but internal divisions caused fragmentation into several rival principalities. This weakening paved the way for the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, which resulted in the state’s collapse. Over the next 600 years, Ukraine’s lands were repeatedly contested and brought under the control of various empires, including the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Austrian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Tsardom of Russia.

The 17th century saw the rise of the Cossack Hetmanate in central Ukraine, symbolising a brief period of semi-independence. However, the state was eventually divided between Russia and Poland, and by the late 1800s, the entire region had been absorbed by the Russian Empire. Ukrainian national awareness grew steadily, and in the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Ukraine briefly declared independence as the Ukrainian People’s Republic. This independence was short-lived, as the Bolsheviks soon took control, creating the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a founding republic of the USSR in 1922. The early Soviet era brought immense suffering, most notably the Holodomor famine of the 1930s, which claimed the lives of millions. During World War II, Ukraine endured brutal Nazi occupation, catastrophic battles, and mass civilian deaths. Approximately seven million civilians were killed, including the majority of the country’s Jewish population.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine became an independent nation and adopted a policy of neutrality. A new constitution was enacted in 1996, marking a shift toward a market-based economy and democratic governance, though corruption remained a major obstacle. The 2004–2005 Orange Revolution prompted political reform, but the following decade was marked by instability. The Euromaidan movement of 2013–2014 sparked a revolution that overthrew the government. Soon after, Russia annexed Crimea, and Moscow-backed separatists ignited conflict in the Donbas. In 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion, drastically escalating the war.

Today, Ukraine is a unitary state with a semi-presidential system of government. Its economy is still transitioning, and as of 2024, it has the lowest nominal GDP per capita in Europe, with corruption continuing to pose significant challenges. Despite economic hardship, Ukraine remains one of the world’s leading agricultural producers, particularly in grain exports. The ongoing war, however, has disrupted this sector and affected global food supplies. Ukraine is considered a middle power and maintains one of the world’s largest militaries, with substantial investment in defence and an extensive drone program. It is a founding member of the United Nations and belongs to organisations such as the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, and the OSCE. Ukraine is currently advancing toward European Union membership and has formally submitted a request to join NATO.

Name

The name Ukraine is commonly associated with an Old Slavic word meaning “borderland,” similar to krajina, though another interpretation suggests it may simply mean “region” or “country.”

For much of the 20th century, English speakers often referred to the country as “the Ukraine,” a remnant of the period when it was viewed as a border territory within larger empires. Since independence in 1991, this usage has declined, as it is now considered both grammatically and politically inappropriate. Many modern language style guides advise against using the definite article, and U.S. ambassador William Taylor has noted that the phrase can imply a lack of recognition of Ukraine’s sovereignty. The Ukrainian government firmly opposes the use of “the” before the country’s name.

History

Early History

Evidence of early human activity in Ukraine dates as far back as 1.4 million years, with stone tools discovered at Korolevo in the west of the country. Continuous human settlement is confirmed from at least 32,000 BC, particularly through remains linked to the Gravettian culture in Crimea. By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture flourished between the Dnieper and Dniester rivers. The region is also considered a potential birthplace of horse domestication. According to the Kurgan hypothesis, the Pontic-Caspian steppe—spanning the Volga to the Dnieper—may have been the homeland of the Proto-Indo-European language family, whose speakers migrated across large parts of Eurasia in the 3rd millennium BC.

During the Iron Age, the area was home to a succession of Iranian-speaking nomadic groups, including the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians. Between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC, the Scythian kingdom dominated parts of modern Ukraine. Beginning in the 6th century BC, Greek—and later Roman and Byzantine—colonies such as Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus were founded along the Black Sea coast, thriving until the 6th century AD. The Goths later settled in the region but fell under the control of the Huns in the late 4th century. In the 7th century, eastern Ukraine became the centre of Old Great Bulgaria, which was eventually conquered by the Khazars.

From the 5th to 6th centuries, the Antes—an early Slavic tribal union—inhabited the area. Their migrations contributed to the formation of various Slavic groups, including those who settled in the Balkans (later forming South Slavic nations) and others who moved northwards, giving rise to the Ilmen Slavs and Krivichs. After a devastating Avar attack in 602, the Antes’ political union disintegrated, though their tribes continued to exist separately into the second millennium.

Kievan Rus’

The origins of Kievan Rus’ remain a subject of scholarly debate, but the state eventually encompassed large parts of modern-day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus’ people were initially Varangians from Scandinavia. In 882, Prince Oleg seized Kyiv from local rulers Askold and Dir and declared it the capital of the Rus’ state. Some historians argue, however, that the East Slavic tribes living along the Dnieper had already begun establishing a state before the Varangians arrived, with the latter later integrating into Slavic society.

Kievan Rus’ reached its height in the 10th and 11th centuries, marking its “Golden Age.” Under the rule of Volodymyr (Vladimir) the Great (980–1015), the state adopted Christianity, while his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) oversaw a period of cultural, legal, and military prominence. Internal rivalries eventually caused the realm to fragment into independent principalities. Although there was a brief revival under Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), the state dissolved following Mstislav’s death, though Kyiv remained an important symbolic centre. By the 11th and 12th centuries, the Turkic-speaking Cumans and Kipchaks controlled the steppe north of the Black Sea.

The Mongol invasions of the mid-13th century devastated the region. The Siege of Kyiv in 1240 left the city in ruins. In western Ukraine, the principalities of Halych and Volhynia united to form the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia. Under the leadership of King Danylo (Daniel of Galicia), the state re-established influence over southwestern Rus’, including Volhynia, Galicia, and Kyiv. In 1253, Danylo was crowned by a papal envoy, creating the Kingdom of Ruthenia (Galicia–Volhynia).

19th and Early 20th Century

During the 19th century, Ukraine witnessed the rise of a strong cultural and national awakening. Romantic-era nationalism inspired literary, cultural, and political movements that shaped Ukrainian identity, with influential figures such as Taras Shevchenko and Mykhailo Drahomanov at the forefront. Industrial development reached Ukraine later than in Western Europe, largely due to the persistence of serfdom, which was abolished only in 1861. As economic opportunities remained limited, large numbers of Ukrainians migrated abroad—particularly to Canada, the United States, Brazil, and Siberia.

World War I & the Struggle for Independence (1917–1921)

At the outbreak of the First World War, Ukrainian lands were divided between the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary. The collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 triggered a complex and chaotic conflict over Ukraine’s future. Several competing forces—including the Ukrainian People’s Republic, Bolsheviks, White Russian forces, Polish armies, and anarchist groups—fought for control. Ultimately, the Peace of Riga (1921) split Ukraine once again: Poland retained control of the west, while the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was established in the east under Moscow’s control.

Interwar Period (1921–1939)

In Soviet-controlled Ukraine, the 1920s initially saw a period of “Ukrainization,” a policy that encouraged Ukrainian language and culture. This short-lived revival ended under Joseph Stalin. The early 1930s brought the Holodomor, a deliberate, state-engineered famine caused by forced collectivization, leading to the deaths of millions of Ukrainians. Many countries now recognize it as an act of genocide.

Repression intensified during the Great Purge, as Stalin targeted Ukrainian cultural, academic, and political figures. This tragic era is often referred to as the “Executed Renaissance.”

Meanwhile, in Western Ukraine—then under Polish control—Ukrainian identity and political activism were suppressed by the Polish state. The resulting tension contributed to the radicalization of nationalist groups such as the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).

World War II (1939–1945)

When Germany and the Soviet Union jointly invaded Poland in 1939, Western Ukrainian territories were absorbed into the USSR, bringing most Ukrainian ethnic lands under one state for the first time.

Under Nazi Occupation (1941–1944)

Nazi Germany invaded the USSR in 1941, rapidly occupying Ukraine. Some Ukrainians initially viewed the Germans as liberators from Soviet rule, but Nazi policies of exploitation, repression, and genocide quickly ended any support. Ukraine became a central site of the Holocaust, during which approximately 1.5 million Ukrainian Jews were murdered.

The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) was formed in 1942. It fought against both Nazi and Soviet forces and was responsible for the mass killings of Polish civilians in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia.

By 1944, Soviet forces had retaken Ukraine and annexed additional territory. The war inflicted catastrophic human and material losses: around six million Ukrainians died, including 1.4 million soldiers in the Red Army.

Post-War Soviet Ukraine

After WWII, Ukraine faced enormous reconstruction needs. More than 700 towns and 28,000 villages lay in ruins. The post-war years also saw the famine of 1946–47, which took tens of thousands of lives, worsened by drought and the destruction caused by the war.

Despite being a Soviet republic, Ukraine was granted a seat at the United Nations in 1945—along with Belarus—through a political arrangement at the Yalta Conference. Ukraine also expanded territorially by annexing Zakarpattia, while forced population transfers—including the deportation of Germans and Crimean Tatars—dramatically altered the country’s ethnic makeup. By early 1953, Ukrainians made up about one-fifth of all adult “special deportees” in the USSR, second only to Russians.

Following Stalin’s death, Nikita Khrushchev ushered in a period known as the Khrushchev Thaw, marked by limited liberalization and de-Stalinization. In 1954, the Crimean Peninsula was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR—a move officially justified as a gesture of unity and for economic practicality, but one that would become geopolitically significant decades later.

Ukraine played a major role in Soviet politics. Several prominent Soviet leaders, including Leonid Brezhnev (General Secretary from 1964 to 1982), were of Ukrainian origin. Under Brezhnev, however, policies of Russification intensified, and Ukrainian cultural expression was heavily suppressed, including the Sixtiers, a new generation of dissidents and writers.

By 1950, Ukraine had surpassed pre-war industrial output and emerged as a central hub of Soviet industry, defence manufacturing, and scientific research. However, environmental neglect and industrial overreliance had severe consequences. The most devastating event occurred on 26 April 1986, when a reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, causing the world’s worst nuclear disaster and leaving long-term environmental and public health damage.

Path to Independence

In the late 1980s, rising nationalist sentiment and widespread frustration with the failing Soviet system fuelled demands for sovereignty. Although Mikhail Gorbachev’s perestroika and glasnost reforms introduced greater openness, they failed to reverse economic decline. Ukraine proclaimed its sovereignty on 16 July 1990, and following the failed coup in Moscow, declared full independence on 24 August 1991. A nationwide referendum on 1 December 1991 saw over 92% of voters confirm this decision. Ukraine’s first president, Leonid Kravchuk, signed the Belavezha Accords, formally dissolving the USSR. Ukraine joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) as a founding participant, although it never ratified the charter and was thus not a full legal member.

Despite early optimism, the transition to a market economy proved extremely difficult. From 1991 to 1999, Ukraine’s GDP contracted by about 60%, and hyperinflation peaked at nearly 10,000% in 1993. The introduction of the hryvnia in 1996 brought some stability, but the 1998 Russian financial crisis triggered another downturn. Privatization allowed the rise of powerful oligarchs, whose dominance hampered reform, fuelled corruption, and distorted the economy. Further economic strain came from the 2008 global recession, the 2014 conflict with Russia, and the 2022 full-scale invasion.

Political life was characterized by a tug-of-war between pro-European and pro-Russian visions. While early leaders sought neutrality, later presidents took clearer sides: Viktor Yushchenko favoured integration with the West, while Viktor Yanukovych leaned towards Moscow. Yanukovych’s rule triggered two major national uprisings: the Orange Revolution of 2004, which overturned fraudulent elections, and the Euromaidan movement of 2013–14, sparked by his withdrawal from an EU Association Agreement. Euromaidan resulted in Yanukovych fleeing the country and the Revolution of Dignity, which Russia portrayed as a Western-backed coup.

Ukraine relinquished the world’s third-largest nuclear arsenal in 1994 under the Budapest Memorandum, receiving assurances of security and territorial integrity from Russia, the U.S., and the U.K. Yet, after the 2014 political shift, Russia annexed Crimea and ignited war in the Donbas. A full-scale invasion began on 24 February 2022. By early 2025, Russia occupied roughly 17% of Ukraine’s internationally recognized territory, including most of Luhansk and parts of Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia, and Kherson, in addition to Crimea. Ukrainian counteroffensives have since reclaimed portions of the occupied areas.

Ukraine’s geopolitical direction shifted decisively westward. It signed the EU Association Agreement in 2014, gained visa-free EU travel in 2017, and the Orthodox Church of Ukraine gained full independence from the Moscow Patriarchate in 2019. Amid the ongoing war, Ukraine was granted EU candidate status on 23 June 2022, and anti-corruption reforms accelerated from 2023 onward, resulting in high-profile dismissals and prosecutions.

Geography of Ukraine

Ukraine is the second-largest country in Europe after Russia and the largest located entirely on the continent. Stretching across 603,550 square kilometres (233,030 sq mi), it occupies the eastern portion of the European Plain between latitudes 44°–53° N and longitudes 22°–41° E. The country has a 2,782-km (1,729-mi) coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.

The terrain is dominated by fertile plains and steppe, interspersed with uplands and river valleys. Major rivers—including the Dnieper, Dniester, Southern Bug, and Seversky Donets—flow southwards into the Black Sea or Azov Sea. The Danube Delta in the southwest forms part of the border with Romania.

Ukraine’s only mountain ranges are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, home to the country’s highest peak, Hoverla (2,061 m / 6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains in the south. Other upland areas include the Volyn-Podillia Upland, Near-Dnipro Upland, Donets Ridge, and Near Azov Upland.

Rich in natural resources, Ukraine holds deposits of lithium, natural gas, kaolin, timber, and some of the world’s most fertile agricultural land. Yet serious environmental issues persist: air and water pollution, deforestation, radiation from Chernobyl, and extensive ecological damage from the ongoing war—including the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam—with cleanup estimated to exceed $50 billion.

Climate

Most of Ukraine experiences a continental climate, with cold winters and warm summers. Southern coastal regions show semi-arid to humid subtropical traits. Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7°C (41.9–44.6°F) in the north to 11–13°C (51.8–55.4°F) in the south. Rainfall is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast. The Carpathians receive about 120 cm (47 in) of precipitation annually, while the Crimean coast averages around 40 cm (16 in).

Climate change poses significant risks, particularly for agriculture. Southern steppe regions are becoming more drought-prone, while northern regions may see extended growing seasons. The World Bank identifies Ukraine as highly vulnerable to climate impacts.

Biodiversity

Ukraine spans six main terrestrial ecoregions, ranging from mixed forests to mountain conifer forests and Pontic steppe. Forests are composed of both coniferous and deciduous trees, with the Polisia region in the northwest being the most heavily forested. The country hosts around 45,000 animal species, most of them invertebrates, and about 385 species are listed as endangered in the national Red Data Book of Ukraine. Wetlands of international importance cover more than 7,000 sq km (2,700 sq mi), including the biologically rich Danube Delta.

Urban Landscape

Ukraine has 457 cities, classified into 176 major oblast-level cities, 279 district-level towns, and two cities with special legal status. In addition, there are 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages, reflecting a diverse mix of urban and rural communities.

Largest Cities (Population Estimates for 2022)

• Kyiv: 2,952,301
• Kharkiv: 1,421,125
• Odesa: 1,010,537
• Dnipro: 968,502
• Donetsk: 901,645
• Lviv: 717,273
• Zaporizhzhia: 710,052
• Kryvyi Rih: 603,904
• Sevastopol: 479,394
• Mykolaiv: 470,011

Political System

Ukraine is a semi-presidential republic with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Constitution

Ukraine’s current constitution was adopted on June 28, 1996, when 315 of 450 members of the Verkhovna Rada (parliament) voted in favor of it. All national legislation must align with the constitution, and only the Constitutional Court has the authority to interpret it. In 2019, an amendment was added, confirming Ukraine’s commitment to pursue membership in the European Union and NATO.

Government Structure

President: Volodymyr Zelenskyy

Prime Minister: Denys Shmyhal

The president, elected for a five-year term, serves as head of state. The unicameral parliament (Verkhovna Rada) holds 450 seats and plays a central role in forming the government, including approving the prime minister. While the prime minister proposes most cabinet members, the president appoints the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Defense, as well as the Prosecutor General and the head of the Security Service of Ukraine.

Local authorities are independently elected, but regional and district administrators are appointed by the president upon the prime minister’s recommendation.

Judiciary and Law Enforcement

Ukraine’s judiciary consists of the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court, which can overturn laws that violate the constitution. Despite structural reforms since 2002, the justice system continues to struggle with issues of corruption and impartiality.

Since Russia’s full-scale invasion in February 2022, martial law remains in force. Prosecutors hold broad powers, and the country’s conviction rate is above 99%, a figure often compared to Soviet-era levels. Pre-trial detentions can also be prolonged.

Law enforcement falls under the Ministry of Internal Affairs and includes the National Police, Border Guard Service, and Coast Guard. Police conduct was widely criticized during the Orange Revolution in 2004, and although new reforms were introduced, accountability concerns persist.

Since 2010, legal proceedings may be conducted in Russian if both parties agree. Individuals who speak neither Ukrainian nor Russian may request translation services. Prior to this, court proceedings were required to be held only in Ukrainian.

Ukraine continues to overhaul government institutions, strengthen the rule of law, and address environmental and policing issues.

Foreign Relations

Served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council from 1999–2001 and has joined UN peacekeeping missions since 1992.

Prioritizes closer integration with the EU and NATO, though historically it maintained a cautious balance between the West and Russia.

Joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace in 1994 and remains committed to obtaining full membership in both NATO and the EU.

Relations with Russia sharply deteriorated after the 2014 annexation of Crimea and the ongoing war.

The EU–Ukraine Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), launched in 2016, significantly expanded economic ties with the EU.

Formed strategic partnerships such as the Lublin Triangle (with Poland and Lithuania) and the Association Trio (with Georgia and Moldova) to support Euro-Atlantic integration.

Granted EU candidate status in June 2022.

Military

Ukraine inherited the third-largest nuclear stockpile after the Soviet Union collapsed but surrendered it by 1996 under the Lisbon Protocol.

The military shifted from conscription to a more professional force, now comprising roughly 196,600 active troops and around 900,000 reservists.

Contributed personnel to peacekeeping missions in places such as Iraq and Kosovo.

Since 2014, Ukraine has strengthened its armed forces with defensive equipment, though still lacks modern fighter jets.

Ukrainian defence tactics—especially mobile infantry operations—proved effective against Russian forces after the 2022 invasion.

By August 2023, estimates suggested around 70,000 Ukrainian soldiers killed and between 100,000–120,000 wounded in the ongoing conflict.

Administrative Structure

Ukraine is a unitary state divided into 27 administrative regions:

24 oblasts (provinces)

1 autonomous republic (Crimea)

2 cities with special status: Kyiv and Sevastopol

Local governments are granted various levels of self-governance based on their importance and administrative role.

Economy

Agriculture remains the backbone of the economy; Ukraine is one of the world’s largest grain suppliers.

GDP per capita (PPP, 2021): approx. $14,000

Corruption continues to weigh heavily on economic performance, and Ukraine ranked 104th out of 180 on the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index.

The economy contracted by 35% in 2022 due to the war, and rebuilding costs may surpass $500 billion.

Average monthly salary (2021): ₴14,300 (around $525).

Public debt to GDP (2020): about 50%.

The EU is Ukraine’s largest trading partner, and remittances from Ukrainians working abroad are a key source of income.

Agriculture

Before the war, Ukraine was a major agricultural exporter:

The conflict has severely impacted food exports, creating shortages in parts of Africa, Asia, and developing nations reliant on Ukrainian grain.

Tourism

Before the Russian-Ukrainian war, Ukraine ranked 8th in Europe for tourism. Travelers were drawn to the Carpathian Mountains for skiing and hiking, the Black Sea coastline, nature reserves, historic castles, and religious architecture. Cities like Kyiv, Lviv, Odesa, and Kamianets-Podilskyi served as major tourist centers. The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine campaigns highlighted top cultural and natural attractions.

Crimea heavily depended on tourism prior to the sharp decline after Russia’s 2014 annexation.

Transport

The 2022 invasion caused severe damage to infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and seaports. Prior to the war:

The Port of Odesa was Ukraine’s main maritime hub, offering ferry services to Istanbul, Varna, and Haifa.

Over 1,600 km (1,000 miles) of inland waterways—such as the Dnieper, Danube, and Pripyat—supported cargo movement, though navigation halts in winter due to freezing.

Ukraine has one of the most-used railway networks worldwide, linking key urban, industrial, and port areas, especially in the Donbas.

Ukraine International Airlines, the national carrier based at Boryspil International Airport, operated a large route network connecting Europe, Asia, North America, and the Middle East before the war halted operations.

Energy

Ukraine’s energy mix is dominated by natural gas and coal, followed by nuclear energy and oil. The coal industry has been weakened by the ongoing conflict, and the country relies heavily on imported gas and oil.

Nuclear power generates about 50% of Ukraine’s electricity, and coal roughly 25%.

Ukraine hosts Europe’s largest nuclear plant—the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant.

In 2019, fossil-fuel subsidies totalled about $2.2 billion.

Once fully dependent on Russian nuclear fuel, Ukraine diversified its supply by the 2010s.

After Russia’s 2022 invasion, Ukraine and Moldova disconnected from the Russian/Belarusian grid and synchronized with Europe’s electrical network.

Ukraine’s gas transit contract with Russia expires at the end of 2024.

Information Technology

The IT industry has become a vital sector, generating nearly 5% of GDP in 2021. Despite war-related obstacles, Ukrainian tech companies continued operating domestically and abroad in 2022. Top government and military officials also rely on Starlink for secure communications.

Demographics

Before the invasion in 2022, Ukraine’s population exceeded 41 million, making it the eighth-largest in Europe. Around 67% lived in cities, especially in the industrial east and southeast. Population density stood at 69.5 people per sq. km (180 per sq. mile), with a life expectancy of 73 years (68 for men, 77.8 for women).

Ukraine’s population peaked at around 52 million in 1993, then declined due to low birth rates, high mortality, emigration, poor living standards, and limited healthcare access—shrinking by 6.6 million between 1993 and 2014.

Ethnic composition (2001 census):

78% Ukrainians

17.3% Russians

Minorities: Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.3%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%), Tatars (0.2%)

Ukraine is also home to 10,000–40,000 Koreans (mostly Koryo-saram) and an estimated 47,600 Roma, though the Council of Europe places the figure closer to 260,000.

Most non-Soviet immigrants came from China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. By the late 2010s, conflict in Donbas had displaced 1.4 million Ukrainians internally. After the 2022 invasion, more than 4.1 million fled abroad. Men aged 18–60 were generally banned from leaving. By 2024, authorities estimated 25–27 million people remained in government-controlled territory.

Language

Ukrainian is the sole official state language, though Russian is still widely spoken, especially in the east and south. Most Ukrainian speakers are bilingual in Russian.

A 2012 law allowed any language used by at least 10% of a regional population to receive official local status; Russian gained regional status in several areas. After the 2014 Revolution of Dignity, Parliament voted to repeal the law, but it was never enacted. In 2019, the regional language law was ruled unconstitutional, drawing criticism from the Council of Europe for limiting minority language protections.

Primary language use:

67% speak Ukrainian as their first language

30% speak Russian

Russian dominates in cities of the east and south, while Ukrainian is more common in rural areas. Hungarian is widely spoken in Zakarpattia Oblast. Debate continues over whether Rusyn is a separate language or a Ukrainian dialect; the government does not recognize Rusyn as distinct.

Throughout the Soviet period, public use of Ukrainian declined sharply. After independence, Ukraine implemented Ukrainian-language revival policies, especially in education and government services. Today, most foreign films and TV programs—including Russian ones—are dubbed or subtitled in Ukrainian. Since 2017, Ukrainian has been mandatory as the language of instruction in public schools from grade 5 onward.

Diaspora

The Ukrainian diaspora includes people of Ukrainian heritage living abroad while preserving cultural identity. Major Ukrainian communities exist in Canada, Poland, the U.S., the U.K., Brazil, and several post-Soviet states.

The 2022 invasion caused one of the largest refugee movements in Europe since World War II, with millions seeking temporary or long-term protection in Poland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Germany, Austria, Romania, and beyond.

Religion

Ukraine has the world’s second-largest Eastern Orthodox population after Russia. A KIIS survey in 2021 found:

82% of Ukrainians considered themselves religious

7% identified as atheists

11% were undecided

Religious observance is highest in western Ukraine (91%) and lowest in Donbas (57%) and the east (56%).

As of 2019, about 82% of Ukrainians identified as Christian:

72.7% Eastern Orthodox

8.8% Ukrainian Greek Catholic

2.3% Protestant

0.9% Roman Catholic

2.3% other Christian groups

0.2% practiced Judaism, Islam, or Hinduism

Within the Orthodox community:

58.3% belonged to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU)

25.4% to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate)

Protestantism has been gradually rising, increasing from 1.9% in 2016 to 2.2% in 2018.

Health

Ukraine offers state-funded healthcare, accessible to all citizens and legal residents. Patients are free to choose between public and private medical facilities. Most healthcare workers are employed by the state but often also work in private clinics.

The Ministry of Healthcare oversees hospitals and medical services. However, hygiene and patient care standards have declined in recent years.

Ukraine faces a demographic and health crisis with high mortality rates, low birth rates, and ongoing emigration. Many deaths—especially among working-age men—result from preventable causes such as alcohol-related illnesses and smoking.

Reforms accelerated when Ulana Suprun became Health Minister. Major improvements included modernizing healthcare financing so that funding follows the patient, ensuring free emergency medical care, and expanding access to affordable medicine for chronic illnesses that cause high disability and mortality.

Education

Ukraine’s constitution guarantees free education for all citizens, and schooling up to the secondary level is mandatory, with most children attending government-funded institutions. Public universities also offer higher education, where admission is based on merit and competitive entrance requirements, allowing broad access for students across the country.

Thanks to the former Soviet focus on universal literacy, Ukraine continues to maintain a high literacy rate of around 99.4%. The school system has shifted from the previous 11-year structure to a 12-year format. Children typically begin primary school at the age of six, completing four years at this level, followed by five years of middle schooling and three years of senior secondary education. At the end of secondary school, students must sit for state examinations, which also function as entrance tests for university admission.

Ukraine has a long-standing academic heritage, with several of its universities tracing their origins back centuries. Among the most historic are Lviv University, founded in 1661, Kharkiv University (1805), Kyiv University (1834), Odesa University (1865), and Chernivtsi University (1875). During the Soviet period, the higher education sector expanded quickly—by 1988, the country had 146 university-level institutions and more than 850,000 enrolled students.

In the present day, Ukraine remains a well-educated nation, ranking fourth in Europe for the number of individuals with post-secondary qualifications, even though its population size places it seventh on the continent. Ukraine’s higher education framework adheres to global guidelines set by UNESCO and the United Nations and is aligned with the Bologna Process. Students may pursue a four-year bachelor’s degree or continue to a master’s program, which generally requires an additional one to two years. Some universities still award the earlier Soviet-style Specialist degree, typically completed in five years. As of 2024, Ukraine placed 60th in the Global Innovation Index.

Regional Differences

Ukraine’s regions display noticeable linguistic and cultural contrasts. Ukrainian is most widely spoken in the western and central parts of the country, whereas Russian remains prevalent in many urban areas of the east and south. During the Soviet era, studying Russian was compulsory, while modern Ukrainian schools use Ukrainian as the primary language of instruction but still teach Russian and other minority languages as optional subjects.

Attitudes toward history and politics—including views on Russia, the Soviet legacy, and Ukrainian nationalism—also vary from one region to another. The west tends to be strongly pro-Ukrainian in identity and is closely linked with the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. In contrast, the east, particularly places like Donetsk, shows stronger cultural ties to Russia and greater nostalgia for the Soviet period. Central and southern regions often hold more mixed or centrist views, with fewer stark divides.

Despite these regional distinctions, Ukrainians share a growing sense of national unity, shaped in part by economic hardships rather than only cultural background. Surveys suggest that Soviet identity remains most pronounced in the Donbas region (around 40%) and in Crimea (roughly 30%).

Historically, election results have reflected these regional preferences. Western and central Ukraine have tended to back reformist, pro-European parties such as Our Ukraine and Batkivshchyna, and leaders like Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko. Meanwhile, voters in the south and east were more likely to support pro-Russian parties, including the Communist Party of Ukraine and the Party of Regions, as well as figures like Viktor Yanukovych. However, in recent years, the once-sharp electoral divide between regions has been gradually diminishing.

Traditions & Arts

Ukrainian cultural life is strongly shaped by Eastern Orthodox values and long-standing family customs, where grandparents often take an active part in raising children. The nation’s artistic identity blends influences from both the East and the West. Among Ukraine’s most cherished cultural traditions are pysanky—intricately designed Easter eggs, the floral folk art style of Petrykivka painting, the distinctive pottery of Kosiv, and the enduring musical legacy of Cossack folk songs.

During the Soviet period, creative expression was heavily controlled, with artists expected to conform to the ideology of socialist realism. This began to change in the late 1980s with glasnost, which opened the door to artistic freedom and cultural revival. Today, several aspects of Ukraine’s cultural heritage are internationally recognized, including eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. However, the cultural landscape suffered considerable damage during the 2022 Russian invasion, affecting museums, historical landmarks, and artistic institutions.

Literature

Ukrainian literary tradition has its roots in early religious texts written in Old Church Slavonic, as well as medieval chronicles. Taras Shevchenko is widely regarded as the founding figure of modern Ukrainian literature and a key voice in the nation’s cultural awakening. Ukrainian writing often faced restrictions, particularly under the Russian Empire, which suppressed the language and national identity. Literature experienced renewed development under Soviet rule, but this progress was interrupted by Stalin-era purges that targeted intellectuals and writers. Following Ukraine’s independence in 1991, authors enjoyed full creative freedom, leading to a new era of literary growth and diversity.

Architecture & Handicrafts

Ukrainian architectural styles have shifted over the centuries, beginning with strong Byzantine roots and later developing into the distinctive Cossack Baroque style, eventually giving way to the monumental and uniform designs of the Soviet era. Traditional handicrafts continue to hold cultural importance, especially textile arts such as weaving and the embroidered rushnyk. These handcrafted pieces often feature symbolic motifs and patterns unique to each region, preserved and passed down through family tradition.

Music & Media

Ukraine boasts a diverse musical tradition that spans centuries—from folk melodies and classical compositions to contemporary pop, rock, and indie music. Influential names in the country’s musical history include composer Mykola Lysenko, the rock band Okean Elzy, and Eurovision winner Ruslana. The nation’s media sector is vibrant, with freedom of the press protected by the constitution, although the level of independence can vary in practice. A major milestone for Ukrainian cinema came in 2024 when the documentary 20 Days in Mariupol earned the country its first Oscar.

Sports

Sports play a significant role in Ukrainian society, with football holding the top spot in popularity. The country has produced several football icons, most notably Andriy Shevchenko, who remains a national sporting hero. Ukraine is also internationally recognized for its exceptional achievements in boxing, having nurtured world champions such as Oleksandr Usyk, the Klitschko brothers, and Vasyl Lomachenko. In athletics, pole vault legend Serhiy Bubka brought global prestige to Ukrainian sports with his record-breaking performances. Beyond these disciplines, basketball, chess, and rugby also enjoy strong followings and continue to grow in national interest.

Cuisine

Ukrainian cuisine is hearty, comforting, and rooted in the country’s agricultural heritage. Meals traditionally feature grains, vegetables, and meat, reflecting the nation’s fertile farmland and long-standing farming culture. Among its most celebrated dishes is borscht, a vibrant beet soup often enriched with meat and served with sour cream. Varenyky, soft dumplings filled with potatoes, cheese, cherries, or meat, and holubtsi, cabbage leaves stuffed with rice and meat, are also staples of the Ukrainian table. The internationally known Chicken Kyiv adds a touch of culinary elegance to the country’s repertoire.

Ukraine’s vast fields of wheat have earned it the title “Breadbasket of Europe,” highlighting its historic role as a major grain producer. Traditional beverages also reflect local flavors—uzvar, a sweet dried-fruit compote, is commonly served during festive occasions, while horilka, Ukraine’s version of vodka, often infused with honey or herbs, remains a popular traditional spirit.

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